Indian Buddhism in Decline

The dawn of the seventh century saw the beginning of the decline of Indian Buddhism. By the thirteenth century Buddhism was no longer a force within the Indian subcontinent. There were several reasons for this. One was the growth of Hinduism, the second was the decline of Buddhist universities and the third was the Muslim Turk invasions of north-west India which began in 986 and culminated in complete domination by the end of the thirteenth century.

The Spread of Buddhism

The fact that Buddhism didn't die out completely was because its seeds had already spread elsewhere. In the third century BCE, it had found a welcome home in Sri Lanka and it may have found its way into Thailand at about the same time. By the sixth century it seems to have rooted itself in Burma. Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Indonesia. Buddhism began to enter China via the Silk Road (early first century) Korea (fourth century), Japan (sixth century) and Tibet (seventh century).

Buddhism in Sri Lanka

Buddhism came to Sri Lanka as a result of a missionary from India named Mahinda, purportedly the son of the great Indian Buddhist emperor, Asoka. Buddhism soon became firmly established and it was in Sri Lanka that the Pali canon - the earliest Buddhist scriptures - were first written down on palm leaves and collected in three baskets. (This is why the Pali canon is referred to as the Tipitaka which translated means 'three baskets'.) The school of Buddhism that developed in Sri Lanka was Theravada 'The teachings of the Elders' and is still prevalent there today. The principal figure in Sri Lanka is Buddhaghosa, a fifth century monk and scholar, who was responsible for an erudite tome entitled The Path of Purification (the Visuddhimaggha). This is a classic text that is an extended commentary on the meditation teachings of the Buddha.

China

Buddhism also moved northwards, entering China as early as the first century CE and thus began a fascinating period in Buddhist history. The prevalent ideology of China at that time was Confucianism, after the philosopher Confucius (551-479 BCE). Confucianism placed great emphasis on social harmony and filial piety. The more mystical tradition of Taoism derived from the teachings of Lao-tzu (b. 604 BCE) and his classic book the Tao Te Ching. In Taoism, the Tao is 'The Way', a profound, ineffable force beyond opposites but which sustains the universe. In practice, it fostered living in harmony with nature and looking within, features that had much more in common with Buddhism than the Confucian concern with social order.

Pure Land Buddhism

By the late fourth century CE, Buddhism was firmly established in China, both with the aristocracy and the masses. One of the populist movements which emerged was Ch'ing-t'u or Pure Land Buddhism. Its founder is said to be Hui-Yuan (334-416). Pure Land Buddhism has Amitabha Buddha ('the Buddha of Unlimited Light') (See image) and his western paradise of Sukhavati as its central focus. The aim of the Pure Land Buddhist is to be born in the Pure Land where the perfect conditions are in place for the attainment of nirvana. To achieve this, the follower must lead a good life and express, through the recitation of the mantra Namo Amitabha Buddha (Homage to the Buddha of Boundless Compassion and Wisdom), a sincere desire to be born in Sukhavati. This required faith in and reliance on the power of Amitabha.

Ch'an Buddhism

The founder of Ch'an Buddhism was the Indian monk Bodhidharma who arrived in China in the sixth century. Bodhidharma reaffirmed the importance of meditation, as opposed to scriptural knowledge. Indeed, the term Ch'an derives from the Sanskrit word dhyana (meditation). Principally a meditation school, enlightenment was to be found by piercing through conceptual understanding to experience one's true (Buddha) nature within.

By the eighth century, two Ch'an schools had emerged - the southern school of Hui-neng (638-713) which taught 'sudden awakening' and the northern school of Shen-hsiu (606-706) which taught 'gradual awakening'. The latter, however, was relatively short-lived and had faded within a hundred years of Shen-hsiu's death.

By the end of the ninth century, two branches of Ch'an Buddhism were in the ascendant. The Lin-Chi school - after Lin Chi (d.866) - and the Ts'ao-tung school - after Tsao-shan (840-901) and Tung-shan (807-869). The Lin Chi school used ostensibly more vigorous methods for achieving awakening, such as striking students with sticks, shouting at them and kung-ans (for example 'What is the sound of one hand clapping?), all of which were designed to jolt the student out of habitual thought into an intuitive awareness of the Buddha nature. The Ts'ao-tung focused more on sitting meditation.

To The Present

In the following centuries, there was a resurgence in the popularity of Confucianism, with Buddhism and Taoism co-existing with it. With the rise of Mao-Tse Tung and Communism in 1949, there began a period of repression and persecution with monasteries sacked or destroyed. The period of the Cultural Revolution (1965-1975) had a particularly devastating impact. However, today, Buddhism is still practiced in China but is small in comparison to the cultural hold it once held before the days of Communism.

Japan

By the fourth century CE, Buddhism had made its way into Korea and from there, into Japan during in 538 CE. The king of the Korean kingdom of Paekche was at war with a neighboring state sent a delegation to Japan seeking support. The ambassadors brought with them Buddhist statues and scriptures. By the end of the century - through the patronage of the Prince Regent Shotoku (573-622 CE) - Buddhism had become the state religion. In the eight century CE, the emperor Shomu (724-749 CE) encouraged the widespread building of temples throughout the land. Six schools of Chinese Buddhism were also imported during this period: Sanron, Jojitsu, Hosso, Kusha, Kegon, and Ritsu.

Tendai and Shingon

The beginning of the ninth century CE saw the rise of the Tendai school, a Japanese version of Chinese T'ien-t'ai school. This was introduced by the Japanese monk Saicho or Dengyo-daishi (767-822) in 805 CE, who established a monastery-come-temple on Mount Hiei, near the then capital of Kyoto. Tendai Buddhism's scriptural basis is the Lotus Sutra. The Shingon school rests within the esoteric tantric tradition. It was founded by a Japanese monk named Kukai or Kobo-daishi (774-835)who in 816 he had a monastery built on Mount Koya. Its principal scriptures are the Mahavairocana Sutra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra.

Jodo-Shu (Pure Land)

The key figure in the development of the Jodo Shu school was Honen (1133-1212), a Japanese monk who taught that the way to enlightenment in a degenerate age was through faith in the compassion of Amida Buddha. This could be achieved by the recitation of the nembutsu (Homage to the Buddha of Boundless Compassion and Wisdom). Followers hope to be reborn in Amida's Pure Land where, it is believed, the best conditions for reaching nirvana are to be found.

Zen

Zen Buddhism derives from Chinese Ch'an Buddhism and emerged in Japan in the twelfth century. Its founder was Esai Zenji (1141-1215), who had traveled in China and had become acquainted with the Lin-chi school. In Japan this became known as the Rinzai school. Another very significant Zen school that developed was Soto, which derived from the Chinese Ts'ao-tung school. It was brought to Japan in the thirteenth century by Dogen Zenji (1200-1253) who placed great emphasis on zazen or sitting meditation.

Nichiren

This school derives from the teachings of a Japanese monk named Nichiren (1222-1282) The focus for this practice came to rest on reciting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, which can be roughly translated as 'Honor to the Lotus Sutra of the True Teaching'. Nichiren believed that the essence of the Buddha's teachings resided in the Lotus Sutra. To recite the Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, therefore, is to unite oneself with the essence of the Lotus Sutra and therefore with the essence of the Buddha's teachings.

Tibet

Buddhism first came to Tibet half way through the eighth century, coming into contact with the indigenous Bon religion with its shamans and mantras. It took hold under the auspices of three kings - Songsten Gampo, Trisong Detsen, and Ralpachen. The key event was the arrival of an Indian tantric master named Padmasambhava in the eighth century CE who is credited with exorcising all the demons from Tibet! But by the middle of the ninth century seemed to be a fragmented and disparate presence.

Schools of Tibetan Buddhism

It was not until the arrival of the Indian scholar Atisa in 1042 CE that Buddhism was properly restored to Tibet. His teachings were very much in the Mahayana tradition and also advocated strict adherence to the monastic rules and dedicated study. It was one of his followers - Dromdon - who formed the earliest school of Tibetan Buddhism known as the Kadampa (pa meaning school).

Between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries four distinct schools of Tibetan developed: the Nyingmapa, Kagyupa, Sakyapa, and Gelugpa. The Nyingmapa or 'Old School' stemmed from Padmasambhava and relied on very early esoteric scriptures known as tantras. The Kagyupa ('speech school'), as its translation suggests, was an oral tradition which was very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an eleventh century mystic who meditated for many years in ice-cold Tibetan mountain caves before eventually reaching enlightenment. The Sakyapa (meaning 'tawny earth' and derived from a monastery of the same name) very much represented the scholarly tradition. It was founded in 1073 by a layman named Konchol Gyelpo. The Gelugpa ('virtuous ones') emerged in the fourteenth century and was founded by Tsongkhapa who was renowned for both his scholasticism and his virtue. Followers of the Gelugpa are also sometimes referred to as 'the yellow hats' (in contrast to 'the red hats' of the Nyingma school).

To The Present

In the seventeenth century, the Gelugpas - with the help of the Mongols - took political power in Tibet under the fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso. Thus began a long line of Dalai Lamas up to the current fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso. In 1959, however, after China had invaded Tibet and taken control of the country, the Dalai Lama fled to India and now has his headquarters in Dharamsala. Though in exile and without any direct political control over his country, the Dalai Lama continues to be the spiritual leader of his nation and works to bring international pressure to bear on China and its domination of Tibet and its people.

Buddhism in the West

The origins of Buddhism in the west lie in the efforts of nineteenth and early twentieth century scholars and colonialists. A significant development was the establishment of the Pali Text Society at the end of the nineteenth century by T W Rhys Davies. Additionally, Edward Arnold's poem The Light of Asia helped to bring the teachings of the Buddha to a wider audience. Another important figure was Christmas Humphreys, an English barrister who founded the Buddhist Lodge in 1924 (later to become the Buddhist Society). After the Second World War Alan Watts was prominent figure in the dissemination of Zen Buddhist teachings. Particularly significant was the foundation of the Friends of Western Buddhism Order (FWBO) in 1976 by a British monk named Sangharakshita (Dennis Lockwood).

Meanwhile, Buddhism was practiced in America in the nineteenth century but was largely confined to small Chinese communities made up of manual workers. It was not until the 1950s, however, that Buddhism began to make some inroads into the indigenous population. The 'beat' generation, and the cultural changes taking place in the 1960s helped to fuel interest in eastern religions, especially Zen and Tibetan Buddhism. Today, all schools of Buddhism are to be found in the USA which accommodates the most Buddhists of any western country. It is also claimed that Buddhism is the fasted growing religion within America.

Buddhism Today

Currently, Buddhism is practiced worldwide in traditionally Buddhist and non-Buddhist countries alike. One estimate has it that there are 350 million Buddhists worldwide with over fifty per cent of these being adherents of the Mahayana tradition. China has the biggest population of Buddhists with countries such as Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar having the highest proportion of Buddhists within their populations. In addition to the increasing popularity of Buddhism in America, Buddhism is also becoming increasingly more popular in Australia and the UK. Wherever it has gone, Buddhism has shown great adaptability in its ability to be assimilated by the indigenous culture without losing sight of its

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